Introduction

            Although Asians Americans have immigrated to the United States from as early as the eighteenth century and now comprise almost six percent of the population, Asians have faced, and currently still face, many forms of stereotyping, racism, and discrimination.  One of the outlets that contribute to an overall negative portrayal of Asians is the media. In films, music, and television shows, Asians are, for the most part, underrepresented and/or pigeonholed into some form of stereotype, archetype, or trope. “Yellow facing” and the idea of “white superiority” have furthered the negative views of Asians in the media. The earliest portrayals of Asians were extreme, portraying Asians as either evil and domineering or highly submissive. Over time, these archetypes have mellowed out into present-day stereotypes that are less overtly racist but still deprive Asians of a sense of individualism. As Asians continue to become a larger and more integral component of American society, it is the hope of many Asian Americans that the media will cease limiting Asians to stereotypical roles and start to depict them more as their own persons. 

"Dragon Lady" - Past

  

Present - "Hypersexual Asian Female"

Future - Individuals? "K-Town"

Fu Manchu and "Yellow Peril"

The Fu Manchu and dragon lady characters were among the first Asian archetypes in the media. Fu Manchu and dragon ladies were typically depicted as evil and ruthless and arose from the "Yellow Peril" of the late nineteenth century. 

Fu Manchu

Originating as a character from British author Sax Rohmer's comic books, Fu Manchu was a deceptive evil genius, mad scientist, sexual predator, and master criminal (Fuller 37).  Nevins states that Fu Manchu was the "Yellow Peril" archetype, a character who stood as "the high point of the [Yellow Peril] stereotype."

Yellow Peril was a term originating in the late nineteenth century that stemmed from an American fear of Asians. After the mass migration of Asians in the nineteenth century, some Americans saw the increasing number of Asians as a threat to the white standard of living and the white way of life. In fiction and media, this fear culminated into the ultimate Yellow Peril figure - an "intelligent, evil mastermind intent on destroying the West" (Nevins). Indeed, as an evil genius who also preyed on white women, Fu Manchu arose as the culmination of the "yellow menace."

To further the image of Fu Manchu as threatening, theatrical effects and makeup were used on actors playing as Fu Manchu in order to portray the character as scary and alien as possible. In cinema, actors playing as Fu Manchu had their "eyes taped to appear smaller, a long mustache, darkly painted and upwardly sloped eyebrows, heavy eyeliner, and long fingernails" in order to create a "repellent, frightening appearance" (Fuller 36). This sinister and extreme appearance of Fu Manchu further illustrates the Americans' fears of the "Yellow Peril" and particularly the fear of "interracial sex and procreation" with Asians (Moon 117).

References

Fuller, Karla Rae. Hollywood Goes Oriental: CaucAsian Performance in American Film. Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University Press, 2010. Print.

Moon, Krystyn R. Yellowface: Creating the Chinese in American Popular Music and Performance, 1850s-1920s. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005. Print.

Nevins, Jess. "On Yellow Peril Thrillers." Violet Books: Yellow Peril. Violet Books, n.d. Web. 10 Dec 2012. <http://www.violetbooks.com/yellowperil.html>.

The Dragon Lady - The Dominant Asian Woman

Dragon Lady


Example: Anna May Wong's daughter of Fu Manchu in Daughter of the Dragon and Hui Fei in Shanghai Express.

The dragon lady is Fu Manchu's female counterpart with added sex appeal. As a "dominant" stereotype of Asian women, she is aggressive, cruel, calculating, clever, and powerful but with an air of "exotic" seductiveness. When portrayed the most negatively, dragon ladies are "inherently scheming, untrustworthy, and back-stabbing"(MANAA). Fuller argues that the dragon lady archetype represents a shift from the "sexually exploitable" lotus blossom image of Asian women to a more "provocative and incendiary stereotype" (Fuller 53). The dragon lady depicts the "more dangerous image of Chinese femininity" (Fuller 53).

Like Fu Manchu, theatrical makeup was used on actresses portraying dragon ladies to give them a sinister appearance. Dragon lady characters "wore long fingernails or metal sheaths that were four to five inches in length" (Moon 117). Again, this extreme depiction of dragon lady highlighted Americans' fears about Asians during the early twentieth century. The fear of interracial mixing with Asians is seen yet again in the dragon lady archetype, as the "female offspring of interracial sex" were usually portrayed as "sensual and manical dragon ladies," depicting the belief that nothing good would ever come from the mixing of blood between whites and Asians (Fuller 34). Indeed, in Daughter of the Dragon, the daughter of Fu Manchu falls in love with a betrothed white man but is ultimately killed by another character in the film, "leaving the white couple to live happily ever after" (Prasso 79). This example shows the level of anti-interracial beliefs during this time period. Thus, the dragon lady stereotype, like the Fu Manchu character, arose from Yellow Peril when Americans perceived Asians to be threats to the white way of life.

Case Study: Anna May Wong

 
While she initially played roles of submissive Asian women, like Cio-Cio San in Madame Butterfly, Anna May Wong catapulted the dragon lady stereotype to fame, starting with Daughter of the Dragon (Fuller 24). In today's day, her name is almost synonymous with the dragon lady archetype. Here is a list of some of her dragon lady characters.

• Daughter of Fu Manchu in Daughter of the Dragon - she falls in love with a white man, tries to kill him, but is killed by another character.
• Hui Fei in Shanghai Express - a prostitute who stabs her rapist to death.
• Dancer in Limehouse Blues - Prasso states that Wong, in a Chinese qipao dress that has a dragon emblazoned on it, embodies the dragon lady from a Western standpoint (80).
• Club owner of Tiger Bay - "laughs manically" while "hurling a knife into a thug," then kills herself in the end (Leong 64).

It is interesting to note that when Wong was criticized for "perpetuating stereotypes," she responded that as an Asian-American actress who was just starting out, she did not have much of a choice about her roles (Prasso 81). Asian-American actress Lucy Liu, who often portrays sexualized Asian characters in modern cinema, would years later say nearly the exact same statement.

References

Fuller, Karla Rae. Hollywood Goes Oriental: CaucAsian Performance in American Film. Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University Press, 2010. Print.

MANAA, . "Restrictive Portrayal of Asians in the Media and How to Balance Them." Media Action Network for Asian Americans. N.p.. Web. 10 Dec 2012. <http://www.manaa.org/asian_stereotypes.html>. 

Moon, Krystyn R. Yellowface: Creating the Chinese in American Popular Music and Performance, 1850s-1920s. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005. Print.

Prasso, Sheridan. The Asian Mystique: Dragon Ladies, Geisha Girls, & Our Fantasies of the Exotic Orient. 1st ed. Cambridge, MA: PublicAffairs, 2005. Print.

 

Geisha Girls and Lotus Blossoms and China Dolls, oh my!

Submissive Asians

Geisha Girl/Lotus Blossom/China Doll

 
Example: Zhang Ziyi's Sayuri in Memoirs of a Geisha, Cio-Cio San from Madame Butterfly


This archetype is perhaps the most famous and oldest of archetypes for Asian women. The polar opposite of the dragon lady, the lotus blossom is the docile, obedient, elegantly beautiful "perfect wife." Her appearance is almost always highly exoticized; most lotus blossoms are clad in traditional Asian clothing (Chinese qipao, Japanese kimono, Korean hanbok) with delicate features, like those of a porcelain doll.

It is possible that the lotus blossom archetype stemmed from a "mystical sexual fascination" with Asia (Prasso 10). Prasso claims that most identify Asia with femininity, thus "assigning the region and its people attributes typically associated with femininity" (11). As a result, the depiction of Asia as "feminine" causes a "romanticization" of both the country and its women, who are already considered "mysterious creatures" (Prasso 11). In addition, the rise and popularity of the lotus blossom could arise from the idea of imperialism. The "masculine" West, seeing itself as more modernized and technologically advanced, views itself as the conqueror over the feminine, exotic East. Thus, the femininity and submissiveness of the lotus blossom becomes synonymous with the East, and the lotus blossom is seen as a beautiful object to be conquered.

One of the first lotus dolls in literature and film was Cio-Cio San of Madame Butterfly. A beautiful Japanese woman who was completely devoted and in love with an American sailor, she commits suicide when the sailor leaves her for a white woman in the hopes that her son with the sailor will have a better life in America. Critics claim that the appeal of Cio-Cio San was from her endless devotion to a "white devil" who was "unworthy of her love" (Prasso 83). After all, what man, especially one with an imperialistic view of Asia, would not want a woman so completely devoted to him, so loyal, with so much undying love, that she commits the ultimate sacrifice by killing herself?

The intrigue and beauty of the Oriental lotus blossom still persist today in the form of films set in old Asia. As Prasso states:

"The West has a continual appetite for the image of sweet, gentle Japanese-child women; the Memoirs of a Geisha, which again took aspects of real truth and fictionalized them into what has now become a century-old tradition of Western men writing fiction about Japanese women... A 2005 production by Steven Spielberg... promises us yet another permutation of a child-like, pining, devoted Japanese woman on screen in the form of that book's heroine geisha, Sayuri." (87)

Clearly, then, the fantasy of the perfect, exotic, obedient, reverential Asian lotus blossom still holds a certain appeal and fantasy for the West. In modern times, she can still be seen in the "shy, demure Asian girl" archetype.

Charlie Chan - The Male Submissive?
 
After complaints and criticisms from various Asian governments against Fu Manchu, Hollywood began to try to portray Asians more positively through archetypes like Charlie Chan. Depicted as a "plump, portly, rosey-cheeked" benevolent detective, Charlie Chan's appearance is supposed to be reminiscent to that of Buddha's (Hawley). Charlie Chan has almost a cherub-like appearance, an appearance that, in contrast with Fu Manchu, is completely non-threatening.

Ultimately, the character of Charlie Chan tends to reinforce traditional, typical Asian stereotypes that also underlie the idea of white supremacy. He is unable to speak English without an accent. He has a nature that is "overly tradition-bound and subservient," which emphasizes the stereotype of Asians being "impassive and stoic" (Hawley). However, even though he holds traditional beliefs, Charlie Chan is proud that some of his sons will obtain American citizenship (Hawley). As a result, Charlie Chan's portrayal becomes that of a subservient, effeminate Asian man that seems to almost be there in order for the white characters to look better in contrast. As the opposite to Fu Manchu, he is the closest archetype that fits that of a "submissive Asian man."

References

Hawley, Sandra M. "The Importance of Being Charlie Chan." America Views China: American Images of China Then and Now. 1991: n. page. Web. 13 Dec. 2012. <http://www.enotes.com/earl-derr-biggers-essays/biggers-earl-derr/sandra-m-hawley-essay-date-1991>.

MANAA, . "Restrictive Portrayal of Asians in the Media and How to Balance Them." Media Action Network for Asian Americans. N.p.. Web. 10 Dec 2012. <http://www.manaa.org/asian_stereotypes.html>.

Prasso, Sheridan. The Asian Mystique: Dragon Ladies, Geisha Girls, & Our Fantasies of the Exotic Orient. 1st ed. Cambridge, MA: PublicAffairs, 2005. Print. 

Cold Asians

Cruel Villain
 
Example: Communists of Red Dawn, Jet Li's Wah Sing Ku of Lethal Weapon 4

The modern-day Asian villain is depicted as exceptionally ruthless and cruel. The villain usually sets his operations in Asian American communities like Chinatown, which are typically shown as a "breeding ground for drug trafficking, illegal gambling, prostitution, and gang wars," adding to the menacing image of Asians (Cheng, et al). When an Asian is the antagonist of a film, there is a more "foreign" aspect to his character. As a result, the audience is never fully able to understand the Asian villain. The Asian villain is almost "less human" than other villains because he is shown as heartless, foreign, unnecessarily ruthless, and unrelatable. In the case of Asian women villains, dragon ladies will also fall into this archetype. One example is O-Ren Iishi, played by Lucy Liu, from Kill Bill Vol. 1. She is depicted as an exceedingly cruel and sadistic villain who "whacks off the head of a Japanese man who questions her authority, [and commits] among other acts of spatter and splatter barbarism" (Prasso 75).

The Cold, Uncooperative Ally

 
Example: Daniel Dae Kim's Jin-Soo Kwon of LOST

Some films or television shows will feature one Asian character who is standoff-ish, distant, and cold. This character is known as the "uncooperative ally." The uncooperative ally speaks little to no English. Whatever English he or she can speak is generally heavily accented or broken. The uncooperative ally, like Jin Kwon of LOST, usually keeps to himself/herself. For much of the first season, Jin Kwon only spoke in Korean and avoided all the other survivors. The uncooperative ally thus "perpetuates the stereotype that Asians are introverted and unaccultured" (Cheng, et al).

References

Cheng, Joy, Charles Hsieh, Scott Lu, and Sarah Talgo. "Asian American Males in the Media." Media Representations of Asians. N.p.. Web. 9 Dec 2012. <http://sitemaker.umich.edu/psy457_tizzle/home>.

Prasso, Sheridan. The Asian Mystique: Dragon Ladies, Geisha Girls, & Our Fantasies of the Exotic Orient. 1st ed. Cambridge, MA: PublicAffairs, 2005. Print. 

The "Exotic" Asian Female: Hypersexual or Submissive?

Hypersexualized Vixen/Nymph



Example: Brenda Song's character Christy Lee of The Social Network (2012)

The Asian Vixen/Nymph shares many similarities with the Dragon Lady. Like the Dragon Lady, the Vixen/Nymph is usually beautiful and seductive due to her "exotic" appearance. She is also usually depicted as manipulative and perhaps even aggressive. The role of the Vixen/Nymph characters tend to emphasize the exotic, the sexual, or the cunning" (Cheng, et al). Many Vixen/Nymph characters are clad in skimpy or tight clothing, which serve to further sexualize this archetype. Ultimately, films with the Vixen/Nymph tend to "harness the power of their sexuality" (Cheng, et al).


Shy, Demure Asian Female



Example: Phoebe from Hey, Arnold!

The shy Asian girl is a modernization of the Lotus Blossom/China Doll/Geisha Girl archetype. While the shy Asian will not be completely submissive to a man like the China Doll, she is still soft-spoken, talking very little, which almost makes her submissive in a different way. Typically, this archetype is accompanied by the character in question admiring a main character from afar.

Even in modern times, Asian women are still portrayed as "silent suffering doormats [or as] dragon ladies - cunning, deceitful, sexual provocateurs" (Hagedorn, 1994). Although the Vixen/Nymph and the shy Asian are almost "mellowed out" versions of the Dragon Lady and the China Doll, these two archetypes still categorize Asian females under two extremes - "naïve and hopeless or untrustworthy and devious" (Cheng, et al). The Dragon Lady and the China Doll were more overtly and blatantly racist depictions of Asian women while the Vixen/Nymph and the shy Asian girl more closely resemble a form of polite racism, in which the media is still displaying prejudices towards how they view Asian women.

References

Cheng, Joy, Charles Hsieh, Scott Lu, and Sarah Talgo. "Asian American Males in the Media." Media Representations of Asians. N.p.. Web. 9 Dec 2012. <http://sitemaker.umich.edu/psy457_tizzle/home>.

Hagedorn, J. (1994). Asian Women in Film: No Joy No Luck, Facing Difference: Race, Gender and Mass Media. Baigi, S. & Kern-Foxworth, M (Eds.),Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge, 32-37.

 

The Modern Asian Male as Seen by the Media

Modern Asian male archetypes/stereotypes seem to emphasize a lack of individuality and sexuality.

Kung Fu Master

Bruce Lee, the man who made this archetype

Made famous by Bruce Lee, Jet Li, and Jackie Chan.

The Kung Fu master is a silent and mysterious. He is a steely, cold projection of strength. However, when combined, these qualities make the kung-fu master seem inhuman. As a result, the Kung Fu master lacks a real personality while his knowledge of Kung Fu makes him seem "dangerous, exotic, and menacing" (Cheng, et al). The Kung Fu master stereotype can go hand-in-hand with poking fun at Asian culture. Sometimes, the Fung Fu master will "speak in broken English or shout highly stereotypical sounds" (Cheng, et al). Cheng et al uses the example of Parappa the Rappa, a character in a video game for children. Parappa teaches the main character Kung Fu. His speech is characterized by a heavy accent and poor language.

In rare cases, the Kung Fu master can also be a female "martial arts mistress." Like the Kung fu master, she is "cold, distant, steely, capable, with emotions kept in check" (Prasso 87).

Emasculated "Computer Nerd" Asian Male

 

Examples: Hiro from Heroes, Kevin from Supernatural

 

The emasculated Asian male is your typical geeky, socially awkward, and unattractive nerd. This widely seen stereotype is conducive to the Asian "model minority" belief. These Asians are the academic achievers - the "extremely studious, serious, shy, mathematically inclined and lacking in social skills and outside skills" students (Kibria 32). As a result, this "Asian nerd" stereotype "embodies qualities that are fundamentally antithetical to individuality" (Kibria 32). In this stereotype, Asians are almost seen as robots or machines; they ultimately lack individuality. Kibria also claims the "idea of foreignness is also deeply embedded in this image. The deficient social skills, passivity, and orientation towards math and technical subjects... suggest a certain lack of comfort and familiarity with the norms and expectations of U.S. culture." Usually coupled with clothing like huge rimmed glasses, waist-high pants, and geeky sweater vests, it's not hard to imagine the Asian nerds as perpetual foreigners and outsiders.

The kung-fu master and the emasculated computer nerd are the two predominant images of the Asian male. Although they are contradictory images, Tsang states that both of them "render [the Asian male] desexualized" (126). The kung-fu master is depicted as too stoic to be capable of love. He is almost inhuman and incapable of the feelings that are conducive to sex. The Kung Fu master is asexual, while the nerdy Asian male is too emasculated and unattractive to be able to have sex. According to Tsang, "the penis is missing in the dominant representation of the Asian male" (126). Indeed, in the media, the MANAA states that Asian men are "almost never positively paired with women of any race." In the past, Asian men in the form of Fu Manchu were depicted as "threatening corrupters of white women." It seems that with the advent of Charlie Chen, modern Asian men are depicted as either "lacking any romantic feelings," as seen in the Kung Fu master, or unable to attract women, as seen in the computer geek.

References

Cheng, Joy, Charles Hsieh, Scott Lu, and Sarah Talgo. "Asian American Males in the Media." Media Representations of Asians. N.p.. Web. 9 Dec 2012. <http://sitemaker.umich.edu/psy457_tizzle/home>.

 

Kibria, Nazli. "College and Notions of ‘ W a n American”: SecondGeneration Chinese and Korean Americans Negotiate Race and Identity." Amerasia Journal. 25.1 (1999): 29-51. Web. 9 Dec. 2012. <http://aascpress.metapress.com/content/x50832234v728659/>.  

Tsang, Daniel C. "Notes on Queer 'N Asian Virtual Sex." Amerasia Journal. 20.1 (1994): 117-128. Web. 9 Dec. 2012. <http://aascpress.metapress.com/content/24j7n8631p57m276/>.